CHILDREN WITH PRINT PROCESSING PROBLEMS

Children who have print processing problems have difficulty recognizing words. They do not have instant recognition of sight words and are not able to decode (sound out) words.

Not all English words are phonetically regular. In fact fewer than half of them can be sounded out correctly if all of the phonic principles are known and used, leaving over half of the words unknown. Secondly, some individuals cannot hear or understand sounds in such a way to be able to use these systems. This is not unlike individuals who are tone deaf and cannot carry a tune. They will probably never be good singers regardless of how much instruction they receive. Trying to teach phonic principles to some individuals can be futile. A fortunate aspect of these individuals is that they can usually learn initial consonant sounds which can be taught and will be very helpful in unlocking unknown words.

Since this is the case, what can be done for individuals who cannot recognize words? These people may have to memorize all words. They may never become excellent readers if this is the case. The English language simply has too many words. One thing that can be done is for these individuals to learn high frequency words. Another thing is that they learn spelling patterns in known words and use analogy to determine how to pronounce unknown words. In extreme cases, some individuals have to rely on recorded books and a device called a Speaking Ace, onto which words are keyed and then pronounced by a computer-like voice. You will probably not be tutoring children for whom this last solution is necessary.

PHONICS

What do you need to know about phonics? You may be very good at sounding out or decoding words because you have learned phonic principles and can apply them. Or you may have never been instructed in phonics or may be in that category of people who really cannot hear subtle differences in sounds. For the training of you as an America Reads Challenge tutor, five things are probably necessary to learn.

1. A tutor should be able to recognize beginning consonant sounds.

2. A tutor should be able to structurally analyze words and remove affixes.

3. A tutor should be able to recognize spelling patterns and use analogy to pronounce unknown words.

4. A tutor should be able to recognize when words are foreign or so very irregular that they will have to be memorized.

5. A tutor should be able to use context to help recognize unknown words.

Why is it more important to know consonants than it is to know vowels? Because consonants are more frequent in words, they are more regular, and they give better clues to pronunciation. Removing the consonants and then the vowels from the Star Thrower legend will illustrate this point. Try to read the legend, in the first part with vowels missing and in the second part with consonants missing. You may want to refer to the intact legend at the beginning of this manual for help as you do this.

In which part of the legend could you recognize words? No doubt the first part, the part without the vowels. Barely any of the words in the second part are recognizable to most people. This illustrates the important function of consonants and demonstrates the greater importance of learning consonant sounds as compared to learning vowel sounds.

Vowels are inconsistent. For example, think about the sound that /a/ makes in the following words: aisle, bar, wait, again, beautiful, says, calf, awful, head, and woman. The same vowel /a/ is pronounced differently in each of these words. There are other ways even that an /a/ can be pronounced! Knowing which /a/ sound to use in an unknown word is very difficult. Therefore, emphasis in phonics instruction should be on consonants. A discussion about how to pronounce consonants will not be included since it is assumed that you already have this knowledge.

Removing affixes from words can give some readers the clues that they need to be able to pronounce unknown words. When a reader mentally removes er, ed, ing, art, ery ist, ary, dis, ment, able, ness, tion, re, pre, dis, and un and others, he is often able to pronounce the word. Therefore, the reader needs to know suffixes and prefixes and that removing them can greatly facilitate pronunciation. He should also learn that most affixes are always pronounced the same. For example, tion is always pronounced shun.

Teaching the use of spelling patterns and analogy is one of the very best ways to help a child learn to pronounce unknown words. For example, how would you pronounce the nonsense word, sardingerent ? In order to use spelling patterns and analogy to pronounce this you would think, if I know this is car , this must be sar. If I know this is win, this must be din. If I know this is her, this must be ger. If I know this is sent, this must be ent. If I blend all of these together, this words must be sardingerent. In using spelling patterns, the child must know some words and work from those to pronounce the unknown word.

Related to using spelling patterns and analogy is looking for little words in big words. This practice is not always helpful because some little words that are in big words are not pronounced as they are when they are little words (educational). In other cases, looking for little words can be productive to pronunciation (personal). Because this works less often than not, this technique should be taught sparingly.

Some words have been taken from other languages and are used in English. For example, ballet, debris, bouquet, and corps come from other languages. The tutor must explain to the child when a word is from a different language and must simply be memorized.

Using the beginning consonant sound and context can be very helpful in recognizing words. This is a phonics technique or graphophonic cue in that the beginning sound is used and a meaning technique or semantic cue in that the child is focused on what makes sense in the passage. When a child comes to an unknown word, especially when he is reading to himself, he should think about the beginning sound, skip the word or say blank and read the rest of the sentence. In this way, the child can often determine what the unknown word is. This is done without the use of complicated vowel rules.

The suggestions above are certainly not the only principles of phonics that can be used in working with the children you tutor. However, they are the most useful and efficient things you can know about phonics.

TEACHING SIGHT WORDS

Certain words are called sight words. They are usually high frequency words that are not phonetically regular. Although there are many words that belong in this category, there are ten words which are the most used ones in the English language (Fry, 1995). One of these words appears in nearly every sentence. If the child knows these words, he will have a head start on reading. You should probably check early in your work with a student to determine if these words are known. If they are not all known, you should teach them to the child. The words are:

the of and a to in is you that it

You will be provided lists of other common sight words which you may want to teach to the children you tutor.

ACTIVITIES YOU MAY WANT TO USE TO TEACH CHILDREN WITH PRINT PROCESSING PROBLEMS

Many activities are appropriate for children who have print processing problems. In some cases, the teacher will tell you what to do with a child at a given time. In other cases, you may be required to determine the activities that you will do with a child. It is always appropriate for you to ask what kind of problem the teacher thinks the child has, whether you are on your own entirely or have some teacher guidance.

Flash Cards

When the student encounters unknown words in his reading, record those words and make them into flash cards. When you make flash cards, also be very careful to write clearly, using your best handwriting. Children who have reading difficulties can be confused by poor handwriting. Flash cards may also be made on the computer. Be certain that you always use the same font and that it is a simple one. They also may use clues, such as a card written with a red marker rather than the usual black or something as trivial as a smudge on the card. Be very consistent in how you make flash cards.

The words on the flash cards can be taken from stories, sentences, or games. Any activities or games (Word Checkers, Word Dominoes, Go Fish, Old Maid etc.) that will require use of the words can be employed with the student. Word recognition instruction should always focus on the presentation of words in context. The words can be removed from context after being presented in context. After they have been practiced in isolation, they should be returned to context.

These techniques use the In-Out-In Approach in which words were taken from context, practiced out of context, and then returned to context. Words for the child to practice can be taken from stories or assigned vocabulary/spelling words. The child must understand the communication benefits of reading. Words in isolation should be practiced in an attempt to improve his word recognition and his association between the spoken and printed word.

Before the student can begin calling words, he may need to practice matching words as described in some of the activities in the following recommendations.

Word Shapes

To make pairs of Word Shapes, the tutor writes the same word, exactly the same size, on two separate index cards and then cuts around each word, making two identical cards which show the word's configuration. If the words were placed on top of each other, there would be no difference in size or shape. This method is used to make pairs of Words Shapes, used in a matching activity. The number of pairs made would depend on the child's attention and attitude.

The words should be separated from their mates and placed in two columns, so that each column contains the same number of different cards. He should be asked to chose a word from column one and find the same word in column two. After making two selections, he overlaps the pieces and to see if they were the same shape and word. He should know then if he had correctly matched the two words. After the student can match all the pairs on his first attempt, he then begins identifying each word pair as it is matched.

Puzzle Pieces

Puzzle Pieces could be used in a manner similar to the Word Shape activity. Puzzle Pieces provide variety while still practicing the skill of improving the child's consistency in recognizing words. Words should be written on two halves of 5 X 8 index cards. Then they should be uniquely cut so that only matching word pairs fit together. The words should be separated and placed into two columns.

The child should be asked to choose a puzzle piece from column one and match it to its mate in column two. After making his selections, he should try to identify the words as the same by piecing the word puzzles together. If they fit, he would know that he was correct, and if not, he should replace both pieces. His attention should be drawn to specific features of the words. Then, he should proceed to attempt to make matches. After the child is able to piece all of the word puzzles together, he should then call each pair of words as he matches them.

Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic/Tactile Technique (VAKT)

The Visual/Auditory/ Kinesthetic/Tactile technique incorporates different modalities as a means of learning. To use this technique, a familiar word from the child's word cards is printed, by the tutor, on paper or cardboard in large print. Each letter's sound is spoken as it is printed. The finished word is pronounced and then the child traces it a number of times with his finger. Next, the child "writes" the word in the air until he can write it on paper or a dry erase board. He compares his spelling to the tutor's original model. The child then uses the word in context orally. Variations of this method could include tracing the printed word with glue and letting the glue dry to provide a texture. While the glue is wet, glitter could be sprinkled on as another alternative (Fernald, 1943).

Word Sorts

Word cards are made from the stories or vocabulary lists. In this activity, the purpose is to draw the child's attention to specific characteristics of words by grouping words according to their features. For example, if the tutor selected three words: am, and, and around he would ask the child what these three words had in common. (They all began with the letter a.) Following the child's response, a brief discussion about the words, their features, and pronunciations takes place. Then, he selects another group of words with a common feature for the tutor to guess the feature he had in mind.

Sentence Expansion

The child is asked to pick three or four words from his flash cards, which he was unable to identify instantly, and use them in sentences. After he writes or dictates his sentences, he is asked to:

1. Select one sentence from those he had written or dictated.

2. Count the number of words within the sentence.

3. Set a goal (the number of words that he thought he could write or dictate in one sentence while maintaining meaning) for an expanded sentence.

4. Construct the expanded sentence.

5. Read the sentence.

6. Cut apart the sentence, word by word, then recognize the words from the sentence, out-of-context.

7. Reassemble the sentence in the original order and say the sentence.

Concentration

Two sets of word cards are printed on 3 x 5 cards. Each card is separated from its mate and placed, printed-side-down in random order, in two columns. The child selects one card from the first column, reads it orally and then selects a second card from the other column, reads it orally and tells his playing partner if they were the same words or not. If they match, the child says that he has a pair and lays his pair next to him and takes another turn. If they are not a pair of words, he replaces both cards and his partner takes his turn. The object of the game is to match pairs of word cards and to be able to identify them.

Patterned Books

To expand a child's sight word recognition, patterned or predictable books could be useful in working with him. These books have repetitive words and phrases so that he can be exposed to the same words and phrases repeatedly when reading them. Examples of the many predictable books are Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? and Five Little Monkeys.

Old Maid

Word cards are dealt to each player and surveys his cards to determine if he has any pairs (two identical word cards) or to see if he has the Old Maid card. The object of the game is to match pairs and avoid the Old Maid card. If pairs are present after dealing, they are laid down.

Play begins with one player randomly selecting a card from his opponent's hand. The word card is read silently and matched to its identical word card in the selector's hand. Then, the opponent draws a card, hoping to make a match and avoid the Old Maid. The game ends with one player matching all of his cards and the other player holding the Old Maid.

Usually it is best to write the words Old Maid on one card since index cards are thin. If a picture of an Old Maid were drawn, its difference from the cards with printing would be obvious and no one would draw it!

Message Writing

Message writing is a technique to develop prediction and monitoring of print processing. The student writes a message, usually a sentence by slowly saying the words. The student predicts and then writes the letters in the words (Walker, 1996).

1. The tutor provides a blank writing book where each page is divided in half. The top half is for practice writing and the bottom half is for sentence writing.

2. Assisted by the tutor, the student composes a brief message (one or two sentences).

3. The sentence is written word by word.

4. If the student is unfamiliar with the printed form of a word, he uses the practice page.

5. The tutor assists by drawing boxes for each letter of the unfamiliar word.

6. The student slowly says the sounds and places the letters he knows in the appropriate boxes.

7. The tutor supplies any unknown letters in the appropriate boxes, slowly saying the sounds in the word.

8. The tutor asks, "Does this look right?"

9. The student evaluates the word and writes it in his sentence.

10. After the sentence is written, the tutor writes it on a sentence strip and then cuts it apart into words.

11. The student reconstructs the sentence, matching the words in his writing book.

12. The sentence is read in its entirety.

Go Fish

Five word cards are dealt to each player, with the remaining cards being placed in the pond, a pile between the two players. The players look for pairs of word cards and lay them down.

Play begins with the dealer asking his/her opponent if he has a specific word card (one that matched a word card in his hand, already). If the opponent has that card, he gives it the dealer. If not, the dealer is told to "Go Fish" at which time he draws a card from the pond. The opponent then asks the dealer for a specific word card (one that matched a word card in his hand, already). If the dealer has that card, he gives it to the opponent. If not, the opponent is be told "Go Fish" at which time, he draws a card from the pond. The game ends when one of the players matches all of the cards from his hand.

Impress Method of Oral Reading

The impress method uses unison oral reading between the tutor and the student. The tutor and student sit side by side, with the tutor reading slightly louder and ahead of the student, modeling fluent and expressive oral reading (Walker, 1996).

1. The student and the tutor select a text that is near frustration-level reading and around 200 words long.

2. The tutor and the student read the text in unison. The teacher reads slightly ahead of and slightly louder than the student.

3. The tutor sits on the right side of the student and reads into the right ear to impress the language structure on the left side of the brain.

4. The tutor moves her finger along the line of print so that the student's eyes can follow his reading.

5. The student's eyes follow the line of print as he reads.

6. As the student gains success through understanding the context, the tutor gradually lets him take the lead.

7. At this time, the tutor releases her lead in reading; however, she supplies difficult words when needed.

Recording Predictable Books

The child can record predictable books so that he can listen to them later. This is done with two tape recorders. He can listen to one page of a book read by an adult on a previously recorded tape and then record his own reading of that page using the other tape recorder. The child could listen to the taped story as many times as necessary prior to his recording. This process continues until he has recorded the entire book. After completion of the taping of the book, the child and tutor listen to it together (Cunningham, 1988).

Echo Reading

Echo reading is a form of modeling oral reading where the tutor reads a line of a story and the student echoes her model by reading the same line, imitating her intonation and phrasing (Walker, 1996).

1. The tutor selects a text around 200 words long that is slightly difficult for the student.

2. The tutor reads the first line of the text, accentuating appropriate phrasing and intonation.

3. Immediately, the student reads the same line, modeling the tutor's example.

4. The teacher and the student read in echo fashion for the entire passage, increasing the amount of text when the student can imitate the model.

Tic-Tac-Toe

This game is played as usual, except words from the child's word bank are in each square. A player must correctly pronounce the word in a space in order to place an X or an O. The first player having three X's or O's in a row horizontally, vertically, or diagonally wins the game.

Personal Dictionary

The child could make a Personal Dictionary to use when he writes. A small notebook of some sort could be divided with a page or two for each letter. Upon mastery, a word could be put in his dictionary for use in writing activities. This is a way to focus on words and the number of words the child is mastering.

Word Checkers

Selected words from the child's word bank are be written on self-adhesive notes. The words are then attached to the black squares of a checkerboard. Each word can be on the board several times. A player must correctly identify a word on a particular square before moving a playing piece to that square. The game continues as normal.

Choral Reading

Joyful Noises is a book of poems that were written by Paul Fleischman to be read aloud by two readers at once, one taking the left-hand part, the other taking the right-hand part. The poems are read from top to bottom, the two parts meshing as in a musical duet. When both readers have lines at the same horizontal level, those lines are spoken simultaneously.

Other poems and material could be read by the child and his tutor to help improve his rate of reading, and perhaps his enjoyment of it.

Chunking

Chunking encourages reading phrases of language that represent meaning rather than singular words. Chunking facilitates comprehension and fluency by utilizing thought units rather than word-by-word reading (Walker, 1996).

1. The tutor selects an appropriate instructional passage that the student can read in approximately three minutes. The student is taped reading the passage.

2. The tutor and the student echo read the passage using meaningful phrases.

3. When possible, the tutor increases the number of sentences chunked before the student echoes.

4. As the student is able to increase the number of thought units chunked,

the tutor stops modeling and the student reads independently.

5. The student is again taped reading the passage and both readings are compared for fluency, intonation, and phrasing.

Repeated Readings

The Repeated Readings technique is the oral rereading of a student-selected passage until accuracy and speed are fluent and represent the natural flow of language. Students must be able to read the selection with some degree of accuracy at the beginning of instruction (Walker, 1996).

1. The student selects a text that he wants to read. The tutor segments the text into manageable passages for oral reading.

2. The tutor makes a copy of the text so she can mark errors as the student reads.

3. The tutor explains that rereading a passage is like practicing a musical instrument or practicing a football play. The repetition helps a person read more smoothly and automatically.

4. The student reads the passage orally while the tutor records errors and speed.

5. The errors and speed are charted on a graph.

6. The student practices silently rereading the passage.

7. The student rereads the passage to the tutor who records errors with a different-colored pen.

8. The errors and speed are charted on a graph for the second reading. Progress toward the reading goals is discussed.

9. The procedure is continued until the speed goal is reached.

10. Steps 6, 7, and 8 are repeated as needed.

CLOSING THOUGHTS

The goal of your work with children with print processing difficulties is presenting the same words many times, until the child achieves mastery of them. A typical first grader needs to see a word 17 times before he masters it. Your students will probably not be typical, so they will need even more than 17 presentations of a word in order to master it.

Be like a postage stamp--stick to one thing

until you get there.

--Margaret Carty