By
Habib Ahmad1, Samiullah
Khan2, Ahmad Khan2 and Muhammad Hamayun3
1Associate Technical
Coordinator, Ethnobotany Project, WWF-Pakistan,
2Research Officers, WWF-Pakistan,
3Lecturer
in Botany,
Address for correspondence:
Ethnobotany Project, WWF-Pakistan
E.mail, M. Hamayun: smh_khan@hotmail.com
Manikhel forests, the far southern extension of
Key words: Manikhel forest; Plant resources; Folk uses
Introduction
Manikhel forests can be traced in the tribal belt between
latitude 33° 41' and 33° 43' North and longitude 70° 05' and 71° 10' East, near Pak-Afghan border. It forms an integral part of
the tribal economy residing inside and all around it. The basic needs like
energy in the form of food, feed, fuel wood, torchwood, water for drinking and
water mills are directly or indirectly got from these forests. The material of
day to day use like wood for construction, logging, furniture, medicine, trade
and goods for cottage industry are harvested from these forests.
The area is devoid of major civic amenities. Recently it has got a metal road and is communicated with digital telephone. Electricity, schools and health facilities, which bring changes in the local culture, are scarce in the area. This paper is an attempt to provide an insight to the unreported hardship area of the region, which will hopefully provide a base for sustainable development of the floral resources of the area.
Results
Data collected
regarding the ethnobotanical survey of the area is summarized in Appendix No. 1
and briefly discussed here as under.
1. Potential plant
resources
The area lies in
the extension belt of Sino-Japanese region and within the widespread Irano-Turanian region in the south and east. It also has an
influence of Indian region as well. Thus the area has accumulated a variety of
plant types ranging from tropical to subtropical and upto
temperate regions on the northern aspects. Both the elements of moist and dry
temperate regions are there. All these facts give special identity to Manikhel forest. A wide variety of plants are there but
this report includes only those species whose common use is either known
locally or they are in daily use for various purposes.
This report
includes 172 species belonging to 80 families. There local uses can be split in
to 45 categories as given in Table 1. The details of plants, their local use
and their local names are presented in Appendix 1. It is beyond the scope of
this report to discuss each and every plant individually, a brief commentary of
the locally most important species are discussed here:
2. Bush food:
Bush food
(Falconer, 1992) in its broader sense can be used for all the edible wild plants
and animals and their products like waxes, honey etc.
The plants used in Manikhel forest in the form of
wild fruits, Pot herbs, brevages, spices, cash
plants, dry fruits, fodder and forage species supply a fraction of the food requirements of the people. Species
involved in food supply from Manikhel forest is given
in Appendix 1. Though it seems to have little economic importance, yet it forms
an integral part of the local economy and culture. Socially serving guests with
bush meat or morals is a sign of prestige and the use of local herbs and spices
gives taste and quality to the dishes served to be.
The availability
of bush food varies from season to season and there are some locals who can
very easily guide the ethnobotanists (through the toponyms) for its easy accessibility. For example if any
one who wants to observe blue pines, the local in this regard direct him to Nakhtarro Ghar (Nakhtar: Blue pine, Ghar: Hill).
Hence exploiting local knowledge in this regard will minimize the wastage of
time, energy and money.
In spring the
forest bottom flourishes with the costly Karkachoks (Morchella esculenta)
and a variety of soil and arboreal mushrooms (locally called Shishtaryae). The soil also flourish a variety of culinary
herbs among which the young fronds of male ferns and shoots of Medicago and
leaves of Rumex nepalensis
and flowers of Bauhinia variegata (karyal) are used
by most of the families as vegetable. The tasty fruits of Reptunia buxifolia (Gwargwaryea),
Pistacia Khinjak (Shinayae), Rubus ulmifalius (Manzakha), Ficus palmata, Ficus glomerata, Grewia optiva (Pasthawonyae), Celtis australis (Tagha), Carissa ophaca (Khkar Meeva), Olea cuspidata (Khawand),
Juglans regia (Ghwaz), and Zizypus jujuba (Bera) provide
subsistence food, spices and a source of precious vitamins to the local
communities, especially coming to the forest for resource collection or
livestock herding. The delicious pot herb which we observed is Phytolacca lithania
whose fruits are also boiled in water and used locally as ink.
Some of these
products e.g. honey, morals, fruits of walnuts, Reptonia, Ficus, and the flowers of Bauhinia are collected and sold in the
local market, thus providing earning base especially to the poor community.
3. Herbal Medicine:
Herbal medicine,
their pharmacognastic characterization and their
rational uses are actually the cultural assets lying viable and remained
preserved in the remote cut off areas like Kohi Sufaid. In
People of the
local community have some mythical beliefs regarding some of the medicinal
plants found locally. The two myths we commonly heard were about Makhkak (Valeriana wallichii) and Mamera (Corydalis stewartii).
According to the local beliefs both the species has divine potential of healing
injuries. According to one legend a gentle man injured on his foot, found
nothing for first aid so he put tightly the leaves of the nearby herbs on his
bleeding wound. On return to home he reopened the leaves dressing and it is
told that there was no mark of the wound visible. The second legendary plant is
Corydalis stewartii
and according to local people the young of “Thora thethi” a black bird cannot open their eyes until they are
administered by the twigs of Mamera. Both Mamera and Makhkak are locally
used in 0pthalmic diseases and in healing wounds respectively. Makhkak is also administered against body weight. The dried
powder of Randa jok (Alkana tenctoria)
rhizomes are applied as topical antibiotics and are applied to chronic wounds.
It is also considered as tonic in small amounts and is taken orally.
The area is malarious and is locally treated by taking fresh Shna Sperkayea (
Plectranthus ragosus)
shoots, though its excess sometime causes injurious effects. The gastric
flatulence and allergies are locally treated by the oral administration of
powder of Tora Baiza (Adhatoda vasica). Norr-i-Alam (Polygonatum verticillatum) and Kukar Mar
(Arisaema utile) are legendary herbs used as
aphrodisiac, the latter needs special preparations whereas the former is of
common use especially in the older people for enhancing sex capabilities. The
root extract from Kaskye (Indigofera gerardiana) is given in
dyspepsia. The latex of Aq Tandoryae
(Calotropis procera) is
used for regeneration of hairs specially in ploughing
bulls. Thymus serphyllum,
Ricinus communis and Aleovera (common herbs in the area) has broad
medicinal applications but the local community has little knowledge of its use.
4. Construction Material:
Most of the
settlements in Manikhel are katcha
(Made of mud). The people live a semi-nomadic life style and their houses vary according
to the prevailing conditions and duration of stay. For example the houses in
the villages are mostly katcha, with typically wider
stories, clay wall having bunkers inside. In high mountains meadows the houses
are generally made of stone walls with the supporting woods inside, whereas in
the southern plains the villages are generally in the form of caves inside the
cliff arcs. These caves are locally known as Garyae, and really present a
marvelous way of primitive life standard in the 21 century. Houses in the
villages and in high mountains needs wood for their construction, but in Garyae no construction wood is needed except a hedge in its
front to avoid the entrance of livestock or wolves at night time. For making
houses the order of preferences varies with the function and
availability/accessibility of wood. For pillars the most preferred wood is Olea followed by Oak, yew, walnut, blue
pine and the least preferred is that of celtis and Bauhinia. For beams the order of
preference remains the same. But for smaller cross beams the most preferred
wood is that of Yew followed by Blue pine, Parroitopsis, Olea, Juglans, Quercus
and others. For course packing the shoots of Olea,
Oak and Taxus are the first preferences which are
then covered with a layer of bushes like Plectranthus ragosus, Indigofera,
Sophora, Peroskia and
ferns in the descending order of preference locally.
Traditionally
the houses in the Orakzai has the same basic plan of
roofing i.e. a layer of fine bushes just below the clay cover, a layer of
branches from trees, a layer of small cross beams and large beams supporting
the whole roof
5 Fuel Wood:
Fuel wood is one
of the most important basic needs in Orakzai Agency.
It is exclusively fulfilled from the forests. The most preferred wood in the
area is oak followed by Olea, Yew, bird cherry,
willow, mulberries and walnuts etc. In Manikhel area
felling in the forest is completely banned. Women go early in the morning to
the forest and bring the lopped wood specially that of Oaks for their daily
use. Besides these each and every plant which is otherwise useless is generally
exposed to burning as fuel wood .Fuel
wood selling provide earning base to the local community.
6 Cottage Industry:
Mazaryae (Nannorohps ritchieana) is the very important forest species used
for making mats, hand fans, ropes and baskets. It is used in local practice or
is collected and sold in the nearby markets as raw. A variety of grasses are
used for the formation of baskets and decoration pieces locally.
7 Cash earning species:
Karkachoks (Marals) are generally
collected by women and children from the forest, and sold in the market with
handsome earning. The sweet fruits of Gurgoryae (Reptonia buxifolia)
are collected and sold locally or supplied to Kohat
and
8 Furniture and
Agricultural tools:
For furniture
walnuts are the most preferred wood, whereas the doors and windows etc. are
generally made up of blue pine and cheer pine. Willows are used for making
sleeping beds. Celtis
wood is preferred for making yokes, whereas, most of the parts of the plough
other than yokes are made of oaks i.e. for sticks and handles etc. Parroitopsis and cotoneaster are generally preferred.
9 Fodder species:
Livestock
keeping is one of the vital economic source forming
integral part of the traditional tribal community. It provides calories in the
form of animal fats, milk, and its products and the essential proteins for the
livelihood of the local people. It also yield earning through its trade and
selling its products. A large number of plant species are used as feed by the
domestic like sheep, goats, cattles, and donkeys
(Appendix 1).
Traditionally
the people have rotational system of grazing, forage production area and
complete reserves, managing the ecosystem operational and productive.
10 Green Pesticides:
Orakzai people are still living with simple lives. The
people are unaware of the use of synthetic pesticides for agricultural use.
People traditionally use some plants for controlling pests. One of the most
common green pesticides is a labiate locally known as
Sensobyae (Peroskia artplicifolia). The rooms cleared with its broom repel
the insects specially beats to stay there. The aqueous extract of Darshool (Chenopodium botrys) is applied to hairs for killing lice. The latex
of Aq Tandoryea(Calotropis procera) is
considered as topical fungicide and is widely applied against the ring worm’s
locally. Its latex is applied to the necks of bulls for the regeneration of
hairs. The shoots of Vitex negundo is
locally considered as a strong insecticide. It is placed within the stored
grains and successfully avoids store grain insects without causing losses to
the stores grain quality. Most of the veterinary pathogens are traditionally
treated with local herbs.
Table 1: Key to the plant use description as given in
appendix I.
|
AT |
Agricultural
Tools |
FN |
Fish
Poison |
S |
Spice |
|
B |
Beverage |
FC |
Fishing
Check |
SA |
Snuff
Ash |
|
BE |
Beeds |
FU |
Furniture |
R |
Resin |
|
BR |
Broom |
GP |
Green
Pesticide |
RS |
Root
Stock |
|
BA |
Bee
Attractants |
HP |
Hedge
Plant |
SB |
Soil
Binder |
|
C |
Construction |
I |
Ink |
SF |
Soil
Fertility |
|
CH |
Charcoal |
IP |
Incense/Perfume |
SP |
Shade
Plant |
|
CP |
Cash
Plant |
L |
Light |
SH |
Sticks/Handles |
|
D |
Dye |
M |
Miswak |
SR |
Soil
Reclamation |
|
DF |
Dry
Fruit |
MP |
Medicinal
Plant |
SM |
Smoking
Medicine |
|
F |
Fence |
O |
Ornamental |
T |
Timber |
|
FO |
Forage |
P |
Paper |
U |
Utensil |
|
FP |
Fodder
Plant |
PH |
Pot
Herb |
WB |
Wind
Break |
|
FS |
Fiber
Species |
PN |
Poison |
WF |
Wild
Fruit |
|
FW |
Fuel
Wood |
PR |
Packing/Rope |
WC |
Wood
Carving |
Discussion
The use of plants for the existence of human
being is as old a practice as the human race itself. The accumulation of
knowledge of plant use however co-evolved with human civilization through the
experiential use of plants, generation after generation. The people of Manikhel area like most other people would have remained
exposed to epidemic, endemic and chronic diseases, besides acute ailments. They
would have also experienced variety of fungal, bacterial and viral diseases
causing damages to them, their crops and livestock. They were therefore forced
to adopt preventive measures of seasonal transhumance on one hand and on the
other hand the traditional system of local recipes has been evolved. Centuries
of experience of management of natural resources of the people of the area has
developed indicators to monitor changes in vegetation/floristic and have
thereby changed their habits accordingly. The religious and cultural norms of
the area have also contributed much to the health and environment of the area.
Historically the
forest resources of the area are distributed among various clans of Orakzai, Manikhel is one of them,
are lucky enough who have conserved their forest upto
a larger extent. The conservation measures called “BANDANR” and “rotational
grazing” employed for the sustainable utilization in traditional ways has
proved quite helpful in maintaining the nature intact. The ideal sites for
recording the compositions of bio-diversity in the forests are the area near Garoo Toi (995m) and Adidar forests (2400m) on the south and north aspects
respectively.
The practices of
sustainable utilization of natural resources with the passage of time are
diffused in the local culture and are locally respected in emotional and
religious zeal. Religious norms in this
area have also provided some protection to the local forests of Mehrab Shahi hills are protected
due to sacredness of the area where a local Buzarg
(saint) had spent a part of his life in this forest. Due to this reason entry
into the forest is very limited and it is only exploited for bush foods such as
Karkachok (morals), wild fruits, seeds, leaves
flowers, rhizomes, honey, and Shishtaryae (mushrooms)
etc., but spiritually it is completely banned for its exploitation in the form
of bush meat and forest trees. Hence the Mehrab Shahi forest exhibits a best resource of non timber forest
products locally.
Besides the
religious exercises the traditional cultures has a great influence in maintaining
the local ecosystem. For example rangelands observed during this survey have
luxuriant growth of grasses which were banned for grazing as well as for forage
extraction. Some selected areas are used for grazing and still other for forage
production and all of these areas change their position after the declared
period of rotation and hence when it becomes necessary, the conservation
practices are employed and are then respected and observed sacredly due to the
traditional norms. During the survey period it was realized that as BANDANR was
employed on cutting Sraf (Taxus buccata)
and Ghouz (Juglans regia) it is observed strictly. For example no one can
cut these trees and its rotting wood is also banned for use by the local
community. The branches of Sraf can be used only for
the construction of roofs of communal places such as Hujras
and mosques. Though both the species are the first priority for construction
and furniture respectively, but due to the complete ban on walnut trees, it can
only be observed in older constructions whereas Yew branches can only be seen
in the roofs of Hujras and mosques.
The people are
too simple, straightforward and dedicated to their tribal decisions and their committed
ness can be realized from a decision when Manikhel sold
the Walnuts in their forests for Rs.0.9 million for the extraction of root bark
without damaging the trees. The contractor collected Dandasa
(root bark) from the roots of wild walnut trees though causing no apparent
damage to the trees at that time, but the countless walnut trees felled in the
proceeding winter causing damage to other flora as well. The forest is still
felled with the rotting wood of walnuts. The local people only take its
advantage in the form of mushroom collection growing on it. The dried decaying
wood of walnut is still banned for everyone providing recycling base for the
forest flora and shelter & food for the forest fauna.
References
Agrios, G.N.1978. Plant Pathology.
Academic press,
Anonymous. 1997. Herbal Medicines, the Networks 6(3):1-2.
Falconer, J. 1992. Non Timber Forest Products in southern
Hamayun, M. 2003. Ethnobotanical studies of some useful
shrubs and trees of District Buner, NWFP,
Hamayun, M., A,
Khan and M. A. Khan. 2003. Common medicinal folk recipes of District Buner, NWFP,
Hamayun, M., M. A. Khan and S. Begum. 2003. Marketing of medicinal plants of
McEven, F.L. 1978. Food production: The challenge of pesticides, Bioscience 28:773-777.
Appendix 1: Ethnobotanical information regarding the potential species
of Mani-khel forests
|
Sl.# |
Botanical Name |
Local Name |
Family |
Folk Uses |
|
1.
|
Acacia modesta wall |
Palosa |
Mimosaceae |
FW, FP, MP, HP, F |
|
2.
|
Acacia catechu wall |
Kikar |
Mimosaceae |
FW, FP, HP, F |
|
3.
|
Acer caesium Wall.ex.Brand |
Shanda wanyae |
Aceraceae |
O, FW |
|
4.
|
Achyranthus aspera L. |
Buch
Kanda |
Amaranthaceae |
MP, FP |
|
5.
|
Albezia lebbeck (L) Benth |
Srekh |
Mimosaceae |
FW, FP |
|
6.
|
Adhatoda vasica Nees. |
Bezya |
Acanthaceae |
FW, MP |
|
7.
|
Adiantum cappillus veneris
L. |
Bar sumbal |
Adiantaceae |
MP, SP, U |
|
8.
|
A. incisum Forsk |
Barsumbal |
Adiantaceae |
MP, SB |
|
9.
|
A. venustum D. Don |
Bbozayae |
Adaintaceae |
MP, SB |
|
10. |
Agaris campestris L. |
Kholkae |
Acgaricaceae |
PN, S, R |
|
11. |
Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle |
Asli shandai |
Simarubaceae |
FW, FP, SB, WB, FU, F |
|
12. |
Ajuga bracteosa Wall. Ex. Benth |
Soor Boutai |
Lmiaceae |
MP, |
|
13. |
A. parviflora Beth |
Tarkha booti |
Lamiaceae |
MP, FN, |
|
14. |
Allium ascalonium L. |
Piazakae |
Alliaceae |
MP,S |
|
15. |
Aloe vera Mill |
Zahar boutyae |
Liliaceae |
MP |
|
16. |
Onosoma
sp. |
Ratan Jok |
Boraginaceae |
MP |
|
17. |
Amaranthus caudatus L. |
Chalwai |
Amaranthaceae |
PH, FP, FO |
|
18. |
Anethum sowa Roxb.
Ex. Flem |
Sawah |
Umbeliferaceae |
MP |
|
19. |
|