ETHNOBOTANICAL EVALUATION OF SOME PLANT RESOURCES IN NORTHERN PART OF PAKISTAN

 

Hassan Sher1 and Farrukh Hussain2

1Department of Botany,G.P.Graduate Jahanzeb College Swat,Pakistan

2Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Pakistan

 

 

ABSTRACT

Overshadowed by the vast impact that habitat loss has on plant species survival, it is easy to overlook the fact that utilization and harvesting of species can often result in their genetic depletion and in an often rapid downward trend of their population status. In this context an ethnobotanical study on the medicinal and economic plants of Malam Jabba valley, District Swat was conducted with the following aims: 1) to document the inventory of medicinal plants; 2) examine the current status of the medicinal plants trade; and, 3) investigate the linkages in the market chain starting from collectors to consumers. The survey reported 50 species of plants belonging to 33 families as ethnobotanically important. These species were used as cured drugs by the local people and folk-lore for treating diseases in traditional  system of medicine. The detailed local uses, recipe preparation along with their local names and diseases treated were recorded for each species. Market survey revealed that the structure of medicinal plant trade is complex and heterogenous, involving many players. The collectors are often not aware of the high market prices and medicinal values, and most of the collected material is sold to local middlemen at a very low price. There was an increase of 3 to 5 folds in prices from collectors to the national market. Recommendations are given in the spheres of training sustainable harvesting and post harvesting of wild medicinal plant resource, trade monitoring, equitable sharing of benefits of wild resources, improved control on harvesting and trade for the conservation of resources, enhancement of cultivation efforts, future research into trade in wild harvested plants, community participation in natural resource management and value addition in the herbal products to maximize the benefits.

Keywords: Malam Jabba Valley; Sustainable harvesting; plant resources.

 

INTRODUCTION

The study area “Malam Jabba Valley,” the heart of the ancient kingdom of Gandhara, located in the North-West part of district Swat, Pakistan, is the greenest and most fertile valley among the Northern valleys Chitral, Swat, Dir, Indus and Kaghan. It lies between the Himalayan and the Hindu Kush foothills. The altitude of the valley varies from 1000 meters at the valley entrance to 3200 meters at the highest peak of Shagar Sar. Due to its geographical location within the monsoon belt villagers of the lower part of the area are surrounded by fruit trees, the fields on either side of the water canal and road are full of wheat and Lucerne. In upper part of the valley, mountains and alpine ecosystems prevail with conifer forests and snow coped peaks. Accordingly, the valley gives home to vast diversity of useful plants, among those edible plants, spices and medicinal and aromatic plants are common.

 

The valley is bounded by district Shanglapar in the North-East, district Buner in the South-West and by main Swat River and road in the West. The area is situated between 35o-20′ to 35o-45′N Latitude and 72o-12′ to 73o-32′E Longitudes.

Population of the valley is about 40,000 with a density of 200 persons per sq. km, and growth rate of 3.48 (1998) census. Most of the population of the study site depends upon agriculture, forest and live stock rearing. Some are Government servants, small business men, petty workers in middle east and a few work as paid labour. The region is mountainous with one peak, Shagar Sar, measuring more than 3200 meters in height. It occupies the floristically rich southern extension of Hindu Kush Raj of the Hindu Kush mountain range.

 

The diversity of climate and geographic locations for plant growth signify the phytogeographic regions of which there are three i.e. I) Sino-Japanese regions having  II) Irano-Turanian in the North-North West and III) Saharo-Sindian regions in the South (Ali and Qaise, 1986)

 

Traditionally forests and rangelands are the main sources of medicinal plants in Pakistan. These plants occur naturally in the forests and pastures of Swat district and are used as a basis for modern pharmaceuticals and, therefore, are commonly exploited commercially. Since these plants usually occur in wild form and have been collected from the forest for decades (Khan, 1985), their cultivation/ex-situ management has been neglected in the past; hence no nurseries or protected areas for commercially exploited medicinal plants exists in Swat.

 

Secondly, lack of knowledge about the part used and time of collection lead to misuse of the species. The appropriate timings to collect the desired plant part of certain age will determine the yield percentage and quality of therapeutically active ingredients.

Currently there is little evidence of the conservation of indigenous medicinal plant species in the study area. The crude and sometimes untimely gathering of medicinal plants does little to enhance their survival or effective population growth, and man’s resulting domestic activities are placing some plant species under constant threat.

At the present time, a number of barriers exist to the sustainable cultivation, gathering and use of medicinal plants. These include lack of clear resource tenure and custodianships, little understanding of sustainable management parameters and knowledge of market requirements. These are coupled with inadequate institutional structures for the management of the dwindling medicinal plant populations and dearth of techniques, skills and experience to promote their sustainable use. The present study was, therefore, initiated to investigate and describe the existing population structure, status, availability and distribution of selected plants, to find out the effect of exposure altitude and vegetation on their population set up. Moreover, the impact of current harvest on the population size of targeted medicinal plants was also determined. The findings might lead to locate ways and means to identify strategies to improve the management of the medicinal plant populations of the study area.

 

There are total of some 2,50,000 species of flowering plants in the world, much less than the species of animals (5-10 million) however, plants contribute to our lives more than animals mainly due to their extra ordinary array of diverse classes of biochemicals with a variety of biological activities. (Buckingham 1999).

 

The plant kingdom had immensely contributed to the health needs of man when no synthetic medicines were available and when no concept of surgical management existed. Even today almost 25% of all prescribed medicines in the developed world contains ingredients derived from medicinal plants ( Sher et al, 2000).

 

Collection and sale of medicinal plants is an important economic activity in the Malakand division, and about 5000 families are involved in the collection and processing of medicinal plants in the region (Sher and Hussain, 1998a). The most active members of plants gathering and processing are women and children from middle hills. These collectors receive the minimum in the trade chain of medicinal herbs (Sher and Shakespear, 2000).

 

Income from the gathering and sale of medicinal plants is thought to be marginalized by a lack of awareness regarding local and over seas market requirements. Local shopkeepers, agents and Hakims, obtain supplies from individuals who have little experience in medicinal herbs preparation or in understanding of its value. As a result valuable economic and medicinal plants of the investigated site are becoming rare and sparse and some are at the verge of local extinction.

 

The present endeavor was, therefore, carried out to document the inventory of economic and medicinal plants along with their local uses, names, part used and method of recipe preparation. Moreover, to determine snap shot of the, hitherto unmonitored aspects of medicinal plant ecology and their socio economic influences on low income group families.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A study on the Ethnobotanical evaluation of economic and medicinal plants was conducted during summer 2003 in various parts of Malam Jabba valley, district Swat. The investigated area was divided into different altitudinal zones with the help of map and top sheet. Accordingly frequent visits were made to the area first in April-May, second in June-July and third in August 2003. Questionnaires were used and devised to identify and document the traditional knowledge of local people and their immediate family about the collection, sale and processing of medicinal plants and their uses within the communities.

 

Information and data on various aspects of the plants such as traditional uses, collection method, time and marketing of each species in the area were gathered from the local experienced persons through interviews and discussions. Data on the market value of the plants was collected from local collectors, shopkeepers (Export Promotion Bureau Office, Malakand division). Information was gathered as to how and from whom the plant materials were obtained and to when they were sold. Likewise, shopkeepers were asked about the sources of the plants received by them.

 

Respondents were also asked about their annual revenues earned from the sale of targeted plants and returned of work invested.

 

The respondents of various age groups were interviewed and their interest as local collectors and traders were noted through the questionnaires. Generally one person was selected and contacted from amongst 10 houses and were asked about the plant.

The plants were gathered from different altitude and sites. They were dried and preserved properly. The fully dried specimens were mounted on herbarium sheets with scotch tape, plants were identified with the help of available literature Nasir and Ali, 1971-91, Stewart, 1972; Beg and Khan 1974, Beg and Samad, 1974). The nomenclature was confirmed from National Herbarium, NARC, Islamabad. A set of voucher specimens were deposited to National Herbarium, NARC, Islamabad and also to the Botany department G.P.G Jahanzeb College Saidu Sharif Swat.

 

RESULTS

The study reported that the local people utilize 50 species of medicinal plants for the curing of various human diseases. They were distributed among 33 families comprising of 26 dicots families, one monocot family (Liliaceae), 3 Gymnosperm families (Cupressaceae, Ephedraceae and Pinaceae) while Fungi and Pteridophytes were represented by one family Helvelaceae and Pteridaceae respectively .

Among Dicots, family Lamiaceae (5 species) followed by Rosaceae (4 species), Asteraceae, Fagaceae, Polygonaceae, and Ranunculaceae each with 3 species were important families. The remaining families had less than 3 species of Ethnomedicinal importance in the study area.

 

The study showed that plants play an important role in the traditional system of medicine of local population. Some plants are used singly, while many others are used in combination with other plants or items such as wheat flour, sugar and ghee etc. Similarly, certain medicinal plants are considered useful in only one specific disease where as several others have multiple such uses. Following is the description of local medicinal uses long with local names, part used, family and botanical name of medicinal plants in the area.

 

Ethnomedicinal description of the plants of Malam Jabba Valley District Swat

 

A.        Group                          :           Fungi

1.         Family                          :           Helvelaceae

1.         Botanical Name            :           Morchella esculanta L. Prs ex Fr.

            Part used                      :           Fruiting body

            Habit                            :           Saprophyte

            Local name                   :           Guchii

Local uses: Locally the morels are fried with cows ghee and used after meal which is considered as a general body tonic. It is also used as a delicious food.

B.         Group                          :           Pteridophyta

2.         Family                          :           Pteridaceae

2.         Botanical Name            :           Dryopteris juxtapostia Christ

            Part used                      :           Young shoot

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Kwanjay

Local Uses: It is used as a local vegetable, which is believed to enhance digestion power.

C.        Group                          :           Gymnosperm

3.         Family                          :           Cupressaceae

3.         Botanical Name            :           Juniperus excelsa Brand

            Part used                      :           Leaves

            Habit                            :           Tree

            Local name                   :           Shahroos

Local Uses: Locally the dried leaves of Juniperus is mixed with Skimmea laureola Leaves and burned in combination to control the evil eyes, and gods.

4.         Family                          :           Ephedraceae

4.         Botanical Name            :           Ephedra gerardiana Wall.

            Part used                      :           Stem

            Habit                            :           Shrub

            Local name                   :           Someni

Local Uses: The powder plant is boiled with water and use twice a day after meal in morning and evening which is considered as remedy for hay fever and cold.

5.         Family                          :           Pinaceae

5.         Botanical Name            :           Cedrus deodara (Rox.ex lamb) D.Don

            Part used                      :           Resin

            Habit                            :           Tree

            Local name                   :           Diyar

Local Uses: Locally 2 to 3 drops of resin extract are taken with a glass of milk early in the morning before breakfast to treat urticaria and other skin diseases.

D.        Group                          :           Monocot

6.         Family                          :           Liliaceae

6.         Botanical Name            :           Allium humile Kunth

            Part used                      :           Whole plant

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Palan

Local Uses: By chewing their leaves and bulb the local treat vomiting and headache.    

7.         Botanical Name            :           Colchicum luteum Baker

            Part used                      :           Corm

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Chunar phund

Local Uses: The local people mix the corm of Colchicum luteum with egg and fry it with cow’s ghee. It is given to aged men and women in the evening before going to bed, which is considered as remedy for joints pain.

8.         Botanical Name            :           Frittelaria roylei Hook.f

            Part used                      :           Rhizome

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Chor

Local Uses: Locally the rhizome of Frittelaria is boiled in milk and taken early in the morning before break fast, which is considered as a general body tonic.

E.         Group                          :           Dicot

7.         Family                          :           Apiaceae

9.         Botanical Name            :           Bunium persicum

            Part used                      :           Seed

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Zera

Local uses: Locally it is mainly collected for commercial purposes, only.

8.         Family                          :           Araliaceae

10.       Botanical Name            :           Hedera nepalensis Kock

            Part used                      :           Whole plant

            Habit                            :           Climber

            Local name                   :           Zelai

Local Uses: The powdered plant of Hedra is boiled with milk and used early in the morning for the treatment of diabetes.

9.         Family                          :           Asteraceae

11.       Botanical Name            :           Artemisia maritima L.

            Part used                      :           Whole plant

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Loam

Local Uses: Locally the dried plant of Artemisia is boiled in water and the extract is cooled and used after meal in the evening before going to bed which is consider as an Anthelmentic agent.

12.       Botanical Name            :           Cichorum intybus L

            Part used                      :           Root

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Haspa booti

Local Uses: Locally the powdered root is taken with a glass of milk for the treatment of general body fever and vomiting.

13        Botanical Name            :           Saussurea lappa Clarke

            Part used                      :           Root

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Kuth

Local Uses: Locally the dried root of Saussurea lappa is mixed with egg and fried with cow’s ghee and used twice a day as an anti-spasmodic agent. The mixture is also used as a carminative agent.      

10.       Family                          :           Berberidaceae

14.       Botanical Name            :           Berberis lycium Royle

            Part used                      :           Root

            Habit                            :           Shrub

            Local name                   :           Hees

Local Uses: Locally the dried root is mixed with egg and fried in cow’s ghee and used for the treatment of fractured bones and wounds healing. It is also considered as a general body tonic.

11.       Family                          :           Caprifoliaceae

15.       Botanical Name            :           Viburnum nervosum D.Don

            Part used                      :           Fruit

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Asos

Local Uses: Locally the fresh fruit of Viburnum nervosum is eaten for the curing of stomach-ache.

12.       Family                          :           Cuscutaceae

16.       Botanical Name            :           Cuscuta reflexa Roxb

            Part used                      :           Whole plant

            Habit                            :           Climber (parasite)

            Local name                   :           Amol

Local Uses: The powdered plant is taken with a glass of milk twice a day after meal for the treatment of diabetes.

13.       Family                          :           Dioscoraceae

17.       Botanical Name            :           Dioscorea deltoidea Wall.

            Part used                      :           Rhizome

            Habit                            :           Climber

            Local name                   :           Kanis

Local Uses: Locally the dried rhizome of Dioscorea deltoidea is fried in cow’s ghee and used early in the morning before break fast for the treatment of kidney problems.

14.       Family                          :           Ebenaceae

18.       Botanical Name            :           Diospyrus lotus L

            Part used                      :           Fruit

            Habit                            :           Tree

            Local name                   :           Amlok

Local Uses: Locally the decoction of ripened fruit is used for the curing of dysentery.

15.       Family                          :           Fagaceae

19.       Botanical Name            :           Quercus semecarpifolia Sm

            Part used                      :           Fruit

            Habit                            :           Tree

            Local name                   :           Meer

Local Uses: The powdered of the ripened fruit mixed with wheat flour and then fried with cow’s ghee. The mixture is locally called Halva, Which is locally considered as a general body tonic.

20.       Botanical Name            :           Quercus dilatata Lindle ex Royle

            Part used                      :           Fruit

            Habit                            :           Tree

            Local name                   :           Tor banj

Local Uses: It is similar to Quercus semecarpifolia but inferior in quality.

21.       Botanical Name            :           Quercus incana (Husskn) H.N

            Part used                      :           Fruit

            Habit                            :           Tree

            Local name                   :           Spin banj

Local Uses: Also similar to Quercus semecarpifolia but inferior in quality.

16.       Family                          :           Geraniaceae

22.       Botanical Name            :           Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex sweat

            Part used                      :           Root

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Ratan jok

Local Uses: The dried root of Geranium wallichianum is mixed with Hen-egg and then fried in cow’s ghee and used twice a day for the treatment of Rheumatism.

17.       Family                          :           Hypericaceae

23.       Botanical Name            :           Hypericum perforatum L.

            Part used                      :           Leaves

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Shen chai

Local Uses: Locally green tea is prepared from their leaves which is considered as a stimulant and carminative agent.

18.       Family                          :           Juglandaceae

24.       Botanical Name            :           Juglans regia L.

            Part used                      :           Fruit and bark

            Habit                            :           Tree

            Local name                   :           Ghoz

Local Uses: The ripened fruit of Juglans regia is used as a brain tonic while the bark of stem and root is used for teeth cleaning.

19.       Family                          :           Lamiceae

25.       Botanical Name            :           Ajuga bracteosa wall ex Bth

            Part used                      :           whole plant

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Phund Kash

Local Uses: Locally the powdered plant is cooked with cow’s ghee and used early in the morning before break fast for the treatment of fever and vomiting.

26.       Botanical Name            :           Mentha longifolia L.Huds

            Part used                      :           Leaves and Stem

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Dhoop

Local Uses: The decoction of the leaves and stem is used for the treatment of cough and vomiting.       

27.       Botanical Name            :           Mentha spicata L.

            Part used                      :           Leaves and stem

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Pudina

Local Uses: The powdered plant is mixed with sugar and taken with a glass of water early in the morning before breakfast to control vomiting. The recipe is also considered as a carminative agent.

28.       Botanical Name            :           Salvia morrcroftiana wall ex Bth

            Part used                      :           Leaves and stem

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Khardag

Local Uses: The leaves are warmed with mustard oil and applied on the swollen skin to release puss, while the inner part of the stem is chewed which is considered as an aphrodiasic agent.

29.       Botanical Name            :           Thymus serphyllum L

            Part used                      :           Whole plant

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Kanesh

Local Uses: Locally green tea is prepared from its leaves and stem, which is considered as a remedy for fever, cough and cold.

 

20.       Family                          :           Pappilionaceae

30.       Botanical Name            :           Indigofera heterantha L.

            Part used                      :           Root

            Habit                            :           Shrub

            Local name                   :           Kese

Local Uses: Locally the powdered roots are taken with a glass of milk twice a day to combat headache and chest pain.

21.       Family                          :           Peaonaceae

31.       Botanical Name            :           Paeonia emodi Wall ex HK.f

            Part used                      :           Rhizome

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Mameikh

Local Uses: The powdered Rhizome of paeonia emodi is mixed with cow’s ghee and taken twice a day after meal, which is considered as a general body tonic.

22.       Family                          :           Podophyllaceae

32.       Botanical Name            :           Podophyllum hexandrum Royle

            Part used                      :           Rhizome

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Kakorra

Local Uses: Locally the Rhizome is crushed and used with cow ghee for the treatment of backache and cancer.

23.       Family                          :           Polygonaceae

33.       Botanical Name            :           Persicaria amplexicaule D.Don

            Part used                      :           Root

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Anjabar

Local Uses: Locally the root of Persicaria is mixed with egg and fried in cow’s ghee, which is considered as a general body tonic.

34.       Botanical Name            :           Rheum emodi Wall

            Part used                      :           Root

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Chutial

Local Uses: Locally the dried root of Rheum emodi is mixed with egg and fried in ghee and used twice a day for the removal of kidney stone and other kidney problems.

35.       Botanical Name            :           Rumex dentatus L.

            Part used                      :           Leaves

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Ovawol

Local uses: Locally the leaves of Rumex are warmed and applied on the wounds for their healing.

24.       Family                          :           Primulaceae

36.       Botanical Name            :           Primula macrophyla D.Don

            Part used                      :           Flower

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Mammera

Local uses: The powdered flowers are applied to the eyes, which is considered to improve eyesight, and control eye diseases.

25.       Family                          :           Ranunculaceae

37.       Botanical Name            :           Aconitun chasmanthum Stapf ex Ham lex

            Part used                      :           Rhizome

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Zaharmora

Local uses: The Rhizome of Aconitun chasmanthum is crushed and mixed with cow ghee and used as a general body tonic.

38.       Botanical Name            :           Aconitum heterophyllum Wall

            Part used                      :           Rhizome

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Zaharmora

Local uses: The use is similar to Aconitum chasmanthum.

39.       Botanical Name            :           Calthea alba Jacq.

            Part used                      :           Leaves

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Maspal

Local uses: Locally the leaves of Calthea alba are applied on the wounds for healing.

26.       Family                          :           Rosaceae

40.       Botanical Name            :           Prunus armeniaca L.

            Part used                      :           Fruit

            Habit                            :           Tree

Local name                   :           Khubani

Local uses: The decoction of the dried fruits is considered as laxative and purgative.

41.       Botanical Name            :           Rosa webbiana Wall

            Part used                      :           Fruit

            Habit                            :           Shrub

Local name                   :           Phalol

Local uses: Locally the fresh ripened fruit of Rosa webbiana is used as antispasmodic agent.

42.       Botanical Name            :           Rubus fruticosus L.

            Part used                      :           Fruit

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Ach

Local uses: Locally the ripened fruit of Rubus fruticosus is used to improve digestion power.

43.       Botanical Name            :           Sorboria tomentosa

            Part used                      :           Infloresceae

            Habit                            :           Shrub

Local name                   :           Beree

Local uses: Locally the inflorescence of sorboria are mixed with mustard oil and applied on the new born child skin to remove skin rashes and also applied on the wound as antiseptic agent.

27.       Family                          :           Rutaceae

44.       Botanical Name            :           Skimmea laureola (DC) Sieb and Zucc

            Part used                      :           Leaves

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Namer

Local uses: The dried leaves are burnt with the bark of Betula utilis to expel evils and evil eyes.

28.       Family                          :           Saxifragaceae

45.       Botanical Name            :           Bergenia ciliata (Haw) Sternb

            Part used                      :           Root

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Badmia

Local uses: Locally the powdered root is boiled with water for an hour after this the remaining gum like substance is applied on the cut wound for healing purposes. It is also considered as blood purifier.

29.       Family                          :           Scrophullariaceae

46.       Botanical Name            :           Verbascum thapsus L.

            Part used                      :           Leaves

            Habit                            :           Herb

            Local name                   :           Khar ghwag

Local Uses: The leaves of verbascum is mixed with Brassica oil and used as antiseptic agent.

30.       Family                          :           Solanaceae

47.       Botanical Name            :           Hyoscymus niger L.

            Part used                      :           Seed

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Shamala

Local uses: The seeds of Hyoscymus niger is applied to the teeth to relive toothache.

31.       Family                          :           Urticaceae

48.       Botanical Name            :           Urtica dioca L.

            Part used                      :           Whole plant

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Jon

Local uses: Locally the powdered plant is smoked as cigarette for the curing of asthma and also for urticarcia.

32.       Family                          :           Valerianaceae

49.       Botanical Name            :           Valeriana jatamansi Jones

            Part used                      :           Rhizome

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Mashkebala

Local uses: Locally the Rhizome of Valeriana is crushed and mixed with cow’s ghee and used for the curing of epilepsy.

 

33.       Family                          :           Violaceae

50.       Botanical Name            :           Viola serpens Wall

            Part used                      :           Whole plant

            Habit                            :           Herb

Local name                   :           Kotan pel

Local uses: Locally it is collected for commercial purpose, only.

 

Market study

The recordings of the present study in Malakand division, Mingora is the main trade centers for many medicinal plants, and they supply considerable quantities of plants to various national trading centers of Pakistan including Peshawar, Islamabad, Lahore and Karachi and also abroad. Figure-1 shows the direct linkages in the market channels between the various herbal markets in Malakand Division and national level. Mingora receives material from various areas of harvest including the study areas, while Lahore herbal market acts as the major center of trade in the country receiving imported material from abroad and from the country sources. The plants under study were sent to various trade centers in the country either directly or through intermediary markets.

 

In district Swat, the trade and collection of medicinal plants are highly uncoordinated and vary from area to area and species to species. For obtaining plants from the study area, the dealers from